You will need a calculator for this exam

A. Graphing
    1. use of scale, units
    2. sample, time period
 
B. Problems with Statistical Reporting
    1. publication bias
        a. "positive" results
        b. sponsor
    2. conclusions may not reflect statistical results
    3. results may not be statistically significant
        - is a confidence level or margin of error reported?
    4. results may not have real-world significance
    5. biased samples or biased surveys will give meaningless results
        - is methodology reported?

II. Statistical Comparisons
A. Population means and variances
B. Sample means and variances

1. sampling error
2. statistical significance

    1. correlation coefficients

a. positive, negative, or zero correlation
b. strong or weak correlation
c. correlation still does not imply causality

III.  Probability Distributions
A. discrete probability distributions
B. continuous probability distributions
C. Measuring asymetry
    1. skewness

D. the Normal distribution
    1. characteristics
        a. family of curves
        b. symetric
        c. bell-shaped
    2. the standard normal
        a. mean = 0, standard deviation = 1
        b. tables and probabilities
        c. transforming any normal to standard form
        d. solving problems

IV. Estimation
A. sample statistics are estimators for population parameters
    1. mean
    2. proportion

B. sampling errors
    1. standard error
        a. normally distributed (central limit theorem)
        b. calculations
            i) infinite population
            ii) finite population
    2. estimate intervals
    3. increasing sample size increases accuracy

C. confidence intervals
    1. calculating interval endpoints
        a. normal distribution
            i) large samples, or known variance
            ii) find z values in normal table
            iii) interval = mean plus/minus z standard errors
        b. t-distribution
            i) small samples, estimated variance
            ii) find t values (n-1) in t-table
            iii) interval = mean plus/minus t standard errors
    2. precision/ accuracy trade-off

V.   Hypothesis Testing
A. Type I and Type II error

B. Inference

1. specify null and alternative hypotheses
2. specify confidence level
3. calculate critical region
    a. standard error
    b. normal table or t-table
4. compare sample statistic to critical value
    a. reject null hypothesis
    b. don't reject null
5. testing
    a. mean
    b. proportion
    c. groups
        i. means
        ii. proportions

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