PHIL 106: Theories of Knowledge
Syllabus

Winter 2004: MWF 1:15 - 2:30, Olds-Upton 316
Instructor: Dr. Ashley McDowell

Office: 202 Humphrey House
Office phone: 337-7077
email me
Office Hours: Mondays and Wednesdays 2:30 - 4:00, Tuesdays and Thursdays 1:00 - 2:00
(unless a change is announced)

Textbooks:

Laurence BonJour, Epistemology: Classic Problems and Contemporary Responses
Ernest Sosa and Jaegwon Kim, eds., Epistemology: An Anthology

Course Description

Knowledge is the kind of thing we can recognize when we see it, but whose true nature is hard to pin down. Someone who believes something that happens to be true by a lucky guess, or for the wrong reasons, doesn't know that thing. Epistemology is the study of issues having to do with knowledge and related concepts. What kinds of facts make the difference between someone who does know something and someone who just has a true belief about it? What kinds of things can we have knowledge of? How does that work? How can we be sure that we know anything at all? After all, we could be in the position of a person in "The Matrix" or a similar virtual reality machine, and we would have no way to know.

Knowledge has crucially to do with what epistemologists call justification, which is something like having a reasonable or warranted belief, or a belief with adequate evidence. The nature of justification has dominated epistemology in the contemporary era, and we will study the most fundamental issues regarding it. In particular, we will focus on debates about whether justification is a matter of the foundations of our beliefs or their coherence with each other, and about whether justification is a matter of factors internal to our minds or external to them.

In this course, we will study classical and contemporary philosophical discussions of these kinds of epistemological issues. In the first half of the class we will study classical epistemological issues, and our readings will be almost exclusively from the BonJour textbook. In the second half of the class, we will explore contemporary epistemology. We will read some original articles by epistemologists along with the textbook chapters.

The class will be a combination of lecture and discussion, and all students will be expected to contribute. You will learn about philosophical concepts and methods in both writing and in discussion. In-class discussions will be conducted with respect and a mutual interest in solving these problems, so that all views will be open to thoughtful criticism. Students will be tested on how well they have learned the views and arguments of the authors studied, and they will also formulate their own original arguments for their own positions.

Throughout the course, you will be both learning about what others have said on these issues and developing your own views. We will be approaching other views - and our own - with respect and with a critical eye. The focus will be on providing and assessing arguments for positions, to try to come to the most thoughtful position possible on these questions. You will be tested on how well you have learned what these philosophers have thought, and their reasons and arguments. You will also be writing papers in which you take and defend a stand on some aspect of the positions and arguments. To do so, you will learn about philosophical methods and concepts.

Class Format

This class will consist of a combination of lecture and discussion. I will spend time every day taking your questions about the reading and the previous class's material, and we will then go over and talk about the current day's material. I will sometimes have you break up into pairs or groups to work on an in-class assignment or discussion.

The format of the assignments may differ from other classes you have taken: there will be no exams and no term paper. Rather, there will be ongoing smaller assignments every week, and three short (about 5 page) papers. Philosophy is best learned through discussion and extended thought, and my view is that this class format will facilitate those activities. The structure of the course means that you will need to put in a good bit of regular work for every class rather than allocating most of your preparation time to a few crunch periods during the quarter.

You will be responsible for completing the readings before each class, and for being prepared to discuss those readings. You should be aware that the readings in this course will most likely be quite challenging for you. We will be reading quite a bit of material for each class, especially in the last half of the course. Give yourself plenty of time to do these readings carefully. Those who want to truly excel in this class will most likely want to read each assignment at least twice, and take notes on the readings. I will often provide study questions to guide your reading.

In this class, we will be discussing issues that most people find important, and on which many people have strong opinions. We will not be merely exchanging opinions, but will be seeking the truth. In that spirit, everyone's contributions will be both respected and open to thoughtful criticism.

Course Requirements and Grading Scheme

Papers (40%)
You will be writing three relatively short (4-6 page) papers for this course. You will have the opportunity to choose three of four possible papers to write: the due dates will be in weeks 4, 7, 9, and 11 (exam week). You may only turn in three papers. These papers will be on assigned topics, although I will be open to papers on alternative topics if approved by me in advance. The first paper you write will be worth 10% of your grade, and each of the other two will be worth 15%.

The point of these papers is to construct and present a philosophical argument for a thesis. This is meant to help you learn to apply for yourself the principles of reasoning, insight, and argumentation modeled and taught in this class. It should also give you an opportunity to work on an epistemological topic at an individual level, grappling with fundamental problems in your own way. These will not be research papers, and I actively discourage you from looking at sources other than those assigned in class.

I may require you to turn in an outline or draft for one or more of the papers, or have you exchange outlines or drafts with other students in the class. I will probably be able to look at rough drafts, either turned in or during office hours; I will let you know details as the time gets nearer. I also encourage you to run rough drafts by each other or your peers at the Writing Center, even if I do not require you to do so. Whether I look at them or not, rough drafts and outlines of each of your papers will be due along with the final drafts.

Quizzes and in-class assignments (30%)
You should expect quizzes and in-class assignments at least once a week, and quite possibly nearly every class meeting. These may be short essay, short answer, objective (multiple choice or true/false) quizzes, or they may have other formats. They may be closely related to study questions or previous lecture information.

The main purpose of the in-class assignments and quizzes is to give you an incentive to keep up with the readings. Given my vision for this course, I expect everyone to come to class having spent quite a bit of time familiarizing themselves with the material for that day, and ready to discuss it. A secondary purpose is for me to get an idea of any trouble spots in your comprehension of the material. For both of these purposes, the best kind of quiz will be one that checks for basic comprehension and preliminary contemplation, not one that expects you to have mastered the material completely. You should expect the quizzes to be hard but not unfair (not tricky).

A note on reading: don't succumb to the misconception that in order to read something you only have to move your eyes over the lines, or "read it out loud in your head," so to speak. What I expect is that you will read the material in a more sophisticated way, thinking as you go. You should be asking yourself the main points, making sure you understand the structure of the reading, thinking about how this reading relates to others you've done, and otherwise working to comprehend the material, not just to complete a technical "reading" of it. You might try highlighting, underlining, making marginal notes, or outlining - whatever helps you focus and understand. By the way, don't forget to read the footnotes as well as the main text in your readings.

Reaction papers (15%)
Every Friday, you will turn in a "reaction paper" on an assignment I will give you by Monday of that week. This will be a typed, double-spaced short essay, and it should be under a page in length. Reaction papers will generally involve you thinking about the material we've been discussing or reading in a personal way, either grappling with your own view on a topic or applying epistemological ideas to things in your own life. I will be assigning these papers either check, check-plus, or check-minus. These correspond approximately to grades of A, B, and C, respectively. In extreme cases where the paper does not approach answering the question asked, one may receive no credit for a reaction paper turned in (an ×). These reaction papers may be shared with the class, unless you ask me (on the paper) not to do so.

The point of the reaction papers is to integrate your academic learning of the material into your personal life and thinking. They are meant to help you see the material as relevant to your life. I will grade these on the basis of how well I see you trying to do that, not on the basis of your ability to regurgitate facts from the readings, or parrot back to me thoughts I or the philosophers studied have expressed.

Participation and questions (15%)
This will be a participation-intensive course. In a philosophy class of this kind, discussion is absolutely essential, and may be the way you learn most about the material. I know that participation is difficult for some people, but you can consider this a safe place to practice contributing to a group discussion, which you will surely need to do throughout your life. I will require and ensure that conversation in class, although probably critical of ideas, will not be critical of people. I expect that we will get to know each other well enough to feel comfortable talking relatively quickly. I also intend to make it apparent that you will not be thought worse of for saying anything, as long as you are speaking respectfully.

I will keep general track of your contributions in class. Keep in mind that contributions can take various forms, including asking for clarification, participation in group work, and giving helpful examples. Keep in mind also that more does not necessarily mean better: those who excessively dominate discussions, speak disrespectfully, or otherwise use their voices in a negative way may be penalized for doing so. If you are in doubt, ask me.

One way to participate is to have good questions to ask in class. Because good questions are helpful to everyone, I will be asking you to bring a question about each day's reading assignment to class that day. The question can be of either of two types. It can be on the material, as if you are composing a good quiz or exam question on the reading. Be creative if you like - make a multiple choice question, an essay question, or whatever - as long as your question reveals that you have thought about something important and/or difficult in the reading. Alternatively, it can be about the material, in the form of something you'd like answered about the reading for that day. This might be the most fruitful kind of question, as it helps you think about what you need clarification on, and if I choose to have you ask your question (or if you choose to ask it), you'll get it answered.

Your question must be written on a 3x5 card, which you can get from me, along with your name, the date, and the reading that your question is about. You should also write your question in your class notebook, since I will be calling on students to share their questions with the class.

I will collect your daily questions at the beginning of each class, and give them a score of check-plus, check, check-minus, or ×, as with the reaction papers. I will probably keep them rather than turning them back, but you can ask me for your scores.

Class conduct
Class conduct does not carry an official weight in this course, but will be taken into account at final grade time. Your conduct in this class includes improvement and effort. It also includes issues of respectful behavior, such as tardiness, distracting behavior, or disrespectful behavior towards members of the class or me.

Assignment responsibilities
All assignments must be turned in as hard (paper) copies - no emailed assignments will be accepted except by special permission. It is your responsibility to retain copies of all assignments you turn in, in a reliable format. Late assignments will be assessed a grade penalty of half a grade for each day late, except in the most extreme extenuating circumstances (for instance, severe illness). The formal requirements for all assignments will be announced in detail well ahead of time, either in class, by email, or both.

A note on changing grades: if you feel you have been assigned a grade unfairly or inaccurately, you should by all means talk to me about it. My only requirement is that you prepare an argument (a set of reasons and facts) before you do so.

Grading scheme:
Paper 1: 10%
Paper 2: 15%
Paper 3: 15%
Quizzes and in-class assignments (average of all): 30%
Reaction papers (average of all): 15%
Participation and questions: 15%

Academic integrity and the Honor System

"It is always important to think of the intellectual world as a community of mutual dependence, mutual helpfulness, mutual protectiveness, and common delight. We take ideas from others and we give them to others. We are indebted to others, and others are indebted to us. In sharing and acknowledging the community, we define ourselves more certainly as individuals. The ability to describe our sources is also an ability to define our own originality and our own selves. All communities depend on generosity, trust, definition, and the proper use of sources is part of the mortar that holds the community of the mind together."
- Richard Marius, Expository Writing Program, Harvard University

In this class, as in all classes at Kalamazoo College, we will be operating under the Honor System. It is important that you familiarize yourself with that system, and so I am attaching a copy of the College's statement of it. You should also familiarize yourself with proper procedures for collaborating, doing research, and citing sources. Should you have any questions about citations, plagiarism, or honor system issues, please visit or contact me.
Any assignment you turn in that I find to violate academic integrity, either through dishonesty, plagiarism, lack of appropriate citations, or unauthorized collaboration, will receive a grade of 0. Any further instance of a violation of academic integrity will be punished by a failing grade in the class as a minimum sanction.

Special needs
If you have any special needs that I can accommodate, please let me know as soon as possible.

Office hours
My office hours are posted above. They will be conducted on a first-come, first-served basis. You should feel absolutely free to come to them and discuss the course, the material, the assignments, or philosophy.
I request that each of you take a few minutes to visit me during my office hours sometime in the first week of classes. It will be an opportunity for us to chat one-on-one for the first time, and to get to know each other a bit more.

Schedule of Readings

This schedule is tentative. Any changes will be announced in class and by email. The reading assignments listed for each day must be completed before that class. All readings are found in your textbooks.

WEEK ONE
M 1/5 Introduction to Class, Epistemology, and Philosophy
W 1/7 Introduction continued
B Chapter 1

PART ONE:
CLASSICAL EPISTEMOLOGICAL PROBLEMS

F 1/9 Descartes' Epistemology
B Chapter 2: pages 11 - top of 18
WEEK TWO
M 1/12 Descartes' Epistemology
B Chapter 2: pages 18 - 24
W 1/14 The Concept of Knowledge
B Chapter 3: pages 27 - 38
F 1/16 The Concept of Knowledge
B Chapter 3: pages 38 - 49
Gettier, "Is Justified True Belief Knowledge?", S&K pgs.
WEEK THREE
M 1/19 MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR. HOLIDAY: NO CLASS
W 1/21 The Problem of Induction
B Chapter 4: pages 53 - 63
F 1/23 The Problem of Induction
B Chapter 4: pages 63 - 74
WEEK FOUR
M 1/26 A Priori Justification and Knowledge
B Chapter 5: pages 77 - 87
W 1/28 A Priori Justification and Knowledge
B Chapter 5: pages 87 - 101
F 1/30 Immediate Experience
B Chapter 6: pages 105 - 117
WEEK FIVE
M 2/2 Immediate Experience
B Chapter 6: pages 117 - 125
W 2/4 Knowledge of the External World
B Chapter 7: pages 129 - 143
F 2/6 Knowledge of the External World
B Chapter 7: pages 143 - 156
WEEK SIX
M 2/9 Other Minds and Testimony
B Chapter 8: pages 163 - 177
W 2/11 Memory
B Chapter 8: pages 178 - 185

PART TWO:
CONTEMPORARY EPISTEMOLOGY

Foundationalism and Coherentism

F 2/13 Foundationalism
B Introduction to Part Two: pages 190 - 191
B Chapter 9: pages 193 - 202
WEEK SEVEN
M 2/16 Coherentism
B Chapter 9: pages 202 - 210
W 2/18 Foundationalism and Coherentism
Sosa, "The Raft and the Pyramid," S&K pages 134 - 153
F 2/20 Foundationalism Revisited
B Chapter 9: pages 211 - 216
WEEK EIGHT
M 2/23 "Foundherentism"
Haack, "A Foundherentist Theory of Justification," S&K pages 226 - 236

Internalism and Externalism

W 2/25 Internalism
B Chapter 10: pages 221 - 224
Foley, "Skepticism and Rationality," S&K pages 182 - 191
F 2/27 Arguments against Internalism
B Chapter 10: pages 224 - 226
Sosa, "Reflective Knowledge in the Best Circles," S&K pages 274 - 285
WEEK NINE
M 3/1 Reliabilism
B Chapter 10: pages 226 - 228
Goldman, "What Is Justified Belief?" S&K pages 340 - 353
W 3/3 Objections to Reliabilism
B Chapter 10: pages 228 - 233
Conee & Feldman, "The Generality Problem for Reliabilism," S&K pages 372 - 386
F 3/5 Objections to Externalism
Pollock, "Epistemic Norms" (first half), S&K pages 192 - 205
WEEK TEN
M 3/8 Internalism vs. Externalism: Assessment
B Chapter 10: pages 233 - 237

Brief exploration of two final contemporary issues

W 3/10 Quine and Naturalized Epistemology
B Chapter 11 (pages 239 - 255)
F 3/12 Skepticism
B Chapter 12 (pages 257 - 276)